Hide and Seek
Looking for Children in the Past
Children outnumbered adults for most of human history, yet they rarely appear in the stories that museums tell. A past without children is incomplete.
This virtual exhibition, based on the physical display at MAA from 30 January 2016 - 29 January 2017, aims to redress the balance.
Some objects will be familiar: a doll, a sledge, a baby's feeding bottle. Other artefacts won't look like children's objects: pots with small fingerprints, a tiny handaxe made 400,000 years ago, goldwork as fine as human hair. By looking carefully at all of this evidence, we will find out about children's lives.
We invite you to look closely to seek glimpses of children's lives in East Anglia and across England from 1 million years ago to the 20th century.
To read more about the process of putting together the exhibition, the first museum exhibition of its kind dedicated to the archaeology of children, visit the Archaeology of Childhood Project blog.
How do we find out about children in the past?
Where we don't have children's footprints, archaeologists look to artefacts to build a picture of children's lives. In the past, some objects were overlooked because they don't obviously relate to children. Others were misidentified. This has resulted in an incomplete story.
To bring out the hidden stories of children, we are piecing together different sources of evidence and drawing comparisons with other cultures.
Hide and Seek: Looking for Children in the Past was a collaborative project between the Museum of Archaeology & Anthropology and Cambridgeshire County Council, funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund.
Footprints from the Past
We start with the earliest evidence we have of children in the archaeological record - footprints from the distant past.
Happisburgh footprints
Happisburgh Footprint Project
Early Pleistocene, 780,000 - 1 million years ago
In May 2013, fierce storms on the Norfolk coast uncovered footprints left by children and adults as they walked along the mudflats of a long-gone river. They were made 780,000 to 1,000,000 years ago by a human-like species (Homo antecessor), and are the oldest of their kind outside of Africa.
Was the group on the lookout for food? What role did the children play in these activities? The footprints, sadly, are silent on these questions.
Roman roof tile
Wendlebury, Oxfordshire. Roman, 1st - 2nd century CE
Kind permission of Wendlebury Gate Stables, Network Rail and Chiltern Railways, OXCMS:2014.90
About 2,000 years ago, a Roman toddler stepped on a still-drying roof tile, leaving behind a chubby footprint. Roof tiles were produced in batches, laid out to dry and then fired.
It is possible to imagine a toddler running along a row of drying tiles quite delighted with the trail of footprints they had left behind. Did children help make the tiles - perhaps to the regret of the adults?
Comparisons and Replicas
These artefacts, usually made of pig bones, are found throughout England. Their function was debated for decades. Drawing on historic evidence in Shetland, where children threaded and spun identical bones to create a buzzing sound, archaeologists were recently able to show that the ancient bones were used for the same purpose.
Play the video below to hear how they would have sounded!
Modern buzz-bone made of a pig's foot bone. 2015. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. Made by Dr Elizabeth Blake
Modern buzz-bone made of a pig's foot bone. 2015. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. Made by Dr Elizabeth Blake
Buzz-bone made of a pig's foot bone. Late 11th or early 12th century. St Martin-at-Palace Plain, Norwich. Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery, NWHCM:1985.444.930
Buzz-bone made of a pig's foot bone. Late 11th or early 12th century. St Martin-at-Palace Plain, Norwich. Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery, NWHCM:1985.444.930
Buzz-bone made of a pig's foot bone. Early 16th century. Pottergate, Norwich. Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery, NWHCM:1974.101.2278
Buzz-bone made of a pig's foot bone. Early 16th century. Pottergate, Norwich. Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery, NWHCM:1974.101.2278
Illuminating Illustrations
This fourteenth century illustration from an illuminated manuscript shows two children enjoying recognisable winter pastimes: skating and sledging. The only significant difference is that the sledge and skates are made from horse bone.
Illuminating Illustrations
Sledge made of a horse’s jaw. The Perspex sheet shows where the seat would have been. 16th - 18th century. Castle Mall, Norwich. Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery, NWHCM:2011.26.A1
Sledge made of a horse’s jaw. The Perspex sheet shows where the seat would have been. 16th - 18th century. Castle Mall, Norwich. Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery, NWHCM:2011.26.A1
Sledge
Illustrations like the one above allowed Norfolk archaeologists to identify that this horse’s jaw was used as a child’s sledge. The underside of the bones have been worn smooth from being pulled over rough surfaces. A wooden platform was used for a seat.
Skates made of horse’s leg bone. Medieval or later. Bread Street and Fenchurch Street, London. MAA, 1883.833 and Z 40671
Skates made of horse’s leg bone. Medieval or later. Bread Street and Fenchurch Street, London. MAA, 1883.833 and Z 40671
Skates
Bone ice skates were used in England from the eighth to the early twentieth century. Skaters stood on the bones and propelled themselves forward using an iron-tipped pole.
Miniature handaxe made of flint (front). Lower Palaeolithic, c. 425,000 years ago. Foxhall Road, Ipswich. Ipswich Borough Council (Colchester and Ipswich Museum Service), IPSMG: R.1920-76.182
Miniature handaxe made of flint (front). Lower Palaeolithic, c. 425,000 years ago. Foxhall Road, Ipswich. Ipswich Borough Council (Colchester and Ipswich Museum Service), IPSMG: R.1920-76.182
Miniature handaxe made of flint (back). Lower Palaeolithic, c. 425,000 years ago. Foxhall Road, Ipswich. Ipswich Borough Council (Colchester and Ipswich Museum Service), IPSMG: R.1920-76.182
Miniature handaxe made of flint (back). Lower Palaeolithic, c. 425,000 years ago. Foxhall Road, Ipswich. Ipswich Borough Council (Colchester and Ipswich Museum Service), IPSMG: R.1920-76.182
Handaxe made of flint. Lower Palaeolithic (500,000 - 150,000 years ago). Isleham, Cambridgeshire. MAA, 1896.193/Record 2
Handaxe made of flint. Lower Palaeolithic (500,000 - 150,000 years ago). Isleham, Cambridgeshire. MAA, 1896.193/Record 2
What About Size?
When archaeologists find miniature artefacts, the temptation is to explain away their small size. In the case of a tiny handaxe such as this, the usual interpretation was that it was originally much larger but was worn down by use and re-sharpening. But this would result in an irregularly shaped handaxe, whilst this example is symmetrical.
The explanation could be much simpler. Handaxes were multipurpose tools and learning to use them was a critical skill for children to acquire. This miniature version would have fitted into a child's hand, and allowed them to learn through play.
Changing views of childhood
"I know a lot about children - I used to be one."
We all think we know what a child is. Yet our understanding of what a child is and does depends on our own experiences. This can influence our perception of children in the past.
As you can see, people in the Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Medieval periods had different ideas about childhood to our own.
Did you know?
- Girls from wealthy families could be betrothed to be married at two-years-old in the late medieval period.
- Roman children were considered infants until the age of seven.
- A girl in medieval England could enter service at the age of twelve.
- In the late tenth century, a twelve-year-old Anglo-Saxon boy could be executed for theft.
Gallery installation view
Gallery installation view
Dressed to Impress?
Our understanding of what children wore in the past comes from depictions in art, written descriptions and surviving clothing. This can result in a distorted picture, as unusual or special clothing particularly of the rich was more likely to be recorded or preserved.
Whilst some children’s clothes from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries look like those of a miniature adult, these were probably for ‘Sunday best’. Everyday wear, such as the clogs, was plainer and better adapted to the active lifestyles of children.
In this print, the boy and girl have exchanged parts of their outfits. The boy is wearing her collar and cap and holds her fan. She wears his jacket and hat and holds his sword. Boy and Girl, John Faber II, 1744. Lent by the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, P.83-1953.
In this print, the boy and girl have exchanged parts of their outfits. The boy is wearing her collar and cap and holds her fan. She wears his jacket and hat and holds his sword. Boy and Girl, John Faber II, 1744. Lent by the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, P.83-1953.
A small linen coat for a child, made from Indian chintz. During the eighteenth century, middle and upper class men wore full-sized versions during mornings spent in their library. 1750 - 1775, England. St Edmunsbury Heritage Service, BSEMS:1976.47
A small linen coat for a child, made from Indian chintz. During the eighteenth century, middle and upper class men wore full-sized versions during mornings spent in their library. 1750 - 1775, England. St Edmunsbury Heritage Service, BSEMS:1976.47
Painted on this Delftware mug is an image of a father holding the hand of his younger daughter. At the top is written: 'Mary Turner Aged 2 years 14 days Sep.2 1752'. Could this be the date of her baptism, or perhaps the day she died? 1752, London or Bristol. Lent by the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, C.1583-1928
Painted on this Delftware mug is an image of a father holding the hand of his younger daughter. At the top is written: 'Mary Turner Aged 2 years 14 days Sep.2 1752'. Could this be the date of her baptism, or perhaps the day she died? 1752, London or Bristol. Lent by the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, C.1583-1928
Clogs were common throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, particularly in the north and west of Britain. Children and adults wore them as protective footwear in breweries, laundries, mines, and for farming. Late 19th century, Lancashire or Yorkshire. MAA, 1914.407 A-B
Clogs were common throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, particularly in the north and west of Britain. Children and adults wore them as protective footwear in breweries, laundries, mines, and for farming. Late 19th century, Lancashire or Yorkshire. MAA, 1914.407 A-B
What Would Survive?
Children's toys are often made of materials that do not survive well in the ground. But even with only part of an object we can still learn a great deal.
Puppet
Only the head, one foot and one hand remains of this medieval puppet. The body and limbs were probably made of organic material, such as wood, that did not survive. The holes through the head, hand and foot show it was a puppet.
Eventually the body of this modern doll may also decay. What could future archaeologists tell from looking at what remains?
Head, hand and foot of a puppet. Medieval (AD 1066 - 1550). Wimblington, Cambridgeshire. Chatteris Museum, CHSCM:1970.2
Head, hand and foot of a puppet. Medieval (AD 1066 - 1550). Wimblington, Cambridgeshire. Chatteris Museum, CHSCM:1970.2
Modern doll with a ceramic face and a fabric body. 20th century. England. On loan from a private collector
Modern doll with a ceramic face and a fabric body. 20th century. England. On loan from a private collector
Rattle
This rattle was woven from reeds using a technique that is at least several hundred years old. Before the rattle was completed, two small metal loops were inserted inside to act as clappers.
Most people will immediately recognise this object and its connection with children. If the rattle was buried, however, over the years the wicker would decompose and only the metal clappers would survive. Archaeologists often discover unidentified metal fragments - how many of them were once rattle clappers or other types of object associated with children?
Rattle with metal clappers, woven from reeds. 20th century. Chatteris, Cambridgeshire. Chatteris Museum, CHSCM:1992.3301
Rattle with metal clappers, woven from reeds. 20th century. Chatteris, Cambridgeshire. Chatteris Museum, CHSCM:1992.3301
Behold the child, by nature's kindly law,
Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw.
A Laughing Child Holding a Wicker Rattle, Jan de Bray, mid-17th century. © Victoria & Albert Museum
A Laughing Child Holding a Wicker Rattle, Jan de Bray, mid-17th century. © Victoria & Albert Museum
Metal clappers, made for display. 2016. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire.
Metal clappers, made for display. 2016. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire.
Funerary monument
Medieval, c.1525
Aldenham, Hertfordshire
MAA Z 22616
Images of children in the past were created by adults. These did not always portray a true picture of children's lives. This memorial from a Hertfordshire church commemorates the death of an important lady. She is shown with her 12 children, four sons and eight daughters.
The children, sometimes called weepers, are in prayer for their mother. If you look carefully, the children are all very similar. An accurate representation of their appearance was less important than their large number, which reflected well on the mother for bringing so many children into the world.
Look. Look Again.
Toys and games can be as fleeting as childhood itself. Chalk lines marking out hopscotch are washed away by the rain, while metal cars rust and conkers rarely survive the autumn. Other toys, such as Lego blocks or a doll passed down through the generations, could survive decades or even centuries.
Which activities from your own childhood could future archaeologists identify?
Preserving Play
"I am called Childhood, in play is all my mind..."
Many of the toys in this section, like the hoop and stick, are also shown in Pieter Bruegel's painting Children's Games (1560) seen below.
Toys can never provide a full picture of children's play. Games such as leapfrog or stick fights leave no trace. The toys in this case were made by adults. They are robust and so more likely to survive. Others were kept and saved by adults for sentimental reasons, sometimes for generations.
Have you saved any toys from your childhood?
Seven marbles made from coloured glass. Marbles as we know them today came to Britain in the medieval period. Imported from the Low Countries, they have been used by children of all ages ever since. Probably early 20th century. Bridge Street, Peterborough. MAA 1974.291 A
Seven marbles made from coloured glass. Marbles as we know them today came to Britain in the medieval period. Imported from the Low Countries, they have been used by children of all ages ever since. Probably early 20th century. Bridge Street, Peterborough. MAA 1974.291 A
Children (and adults) have played with balls for thousands of years. Made from a variety of materials throughout history from textiles to rubber, these two leather balls were found in a wall cavity. White and brown leather balls. 17th-19th century. Botesdale, Suffolk. St Edmundsbury Heritage Service, BSEMS:1997.64.1-2
Children (and adults) have played with balls for thousands of years. Made from a variety of materials throughout history from textiles to rubber, these two leather balls were found in a wall cavity. White and brown leather balls. 17th-19th century. Botesdale, Suffolk. St Edmundsbury Heritage Service, BSEMS:1997.64.1-2
A clay doll torso and head. Dolls from the Roman period were usually made from clay and had jointed limbs allowing the arms and legs to move. Roman, late 2nd century CE. Petty Cury, Cambridge. MAA 1978.1
A clay doll torso and head. Dolls from the Roman period were usually made from clay and had jointed limbs allowing the arms and legs to move. Roman, late 2nd century CE. Petty Cury, Cambridge. MAA 1978.1
Cement mould. Materials used to make toys were in short supply during the First World War so children and manufacturers had to think more creatively when it came to toys and play. The Cambridge Cement Works gave out reject cement blocks like this one to children in place of toys, although we don't know what the children thought of them. c.1916. Cambridge. Museum of Cambridge, CAMFK.TO778.81.2
Cement mould. Materials used to make toys were in short supply during the First World War so children and manufacturers had to think more creatively when it came to toys and play. The Cambridge Cement Works gave out reject cement blocks like this one to children in place of toys, although we don't know what the children thought of them. c.1916. Cambridge. Museum of Cambridge, CAMFK.TO778.81.2
Brown glazed whistle in the form of an owl. Clay whistles were considered novelties or toys rather than serious musical instruments. Those in the shape of birds could produce a warbling sound when played by pouring a little water into the body. 17th - 19th century. Wilburton, Cambridgeshire. MAA Z 16456
Brown glazed whistle in the form of an owl. Clay whistles were considered novelties or toys rather than serious musical instruments. Those in the shape of birds could produce a warbling sound when played by pouring a little water into the body. 17th - 19th century. Wilburton, Cambridgeshire. MAA Z 16456
Green glazed whistle in the form of a cockerel. 15th - 17th century. Ely, Cambridgeshire. MAA 1910.366
Green glazed whistle in the form of a cockerel. 15th - 17th century. Ely, Cambridgeshire. MAA 1910.366
Green glazed whistle in the form of a ram. Clay whistles were considered novelties or toys rather than series musical instruments. 15th - 17th century. Lincoln, Lincolnshire. MAA 1929.467
Green glazed whistle in the form of a ram. Clay whistles were considered novelties or toys rather than series musical instruments. 15th - 17th century. Lincoln, Lincolnshire. MAA 1929.467
Tin toys. Tin was first used to make toys in the mid-nineteenth century. It was hardwearing and cheap to produce, making it ideal for mass production. 1930s-1950s. Chatteris, Cambridgeshire. Chatteris Museum, from the Neville Angell estate. CHSCM:2015.07
Tin toys. Tin was first used to make toys in the mid-nineteenth century. It was hardwearing and cheap to produce, making it ideal for mass production. 1930s-1950s. Chatteris, Cambridgeshire. Chatteris Museum, from the Neville Angell estate. CHSCM:2015.07
Hoop and stick. As we can see from Bruegel's Children's Games, the hoop and stick was a popular game in the sixteenth century. Its first recorded use was by the Greeks and Romans, remaining a favourite toy in the nineteenth century. 19th century. England. March and District Museum, MRHMM: 3877e
Hoop and stick. As we can see from Bruegel's Children's Games, the hoop and stick was a popular game in the sixteenth century. Its first recorded use was by the Greeks and Romans, remaining a favourite toy in the nineteenth century. 19th century. England. March and District Museum, MRHMM: 3877e
21 lead birds and beasts. Lead toys have been found from as early as the late thirteenth century, and became more widespread by the end of the medieval period. This type of toy is a predecessor to more recent tin toys. Medieval. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. MAA 1905.3
21 lead birds and beasts. Lead toys have been found from as early as the late thirteenth century, and became more widespread by the end of the medieval period. This type of toy is a predecessor to more recent tin toys. Medieval. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. MAA 1905.3
Model train and carriage. This wooden train consisting of an engine and one carriage is painted with the initials of the London Brighton and South Coast Railway, one of the largest suburban railway networks, which ran from 1846 to 1922. The production of toy trains began with the introduction of the railways in the 1820s and continues to this day. c.1890. England. Museum of Cambridge CAMFK:418.54
Model train and carriage. This wooden train consisting of an engine and one carriage is painted with the initials of the London Brighton and South Coast Railway, one of the largest suburban railway networks, which ran from 1846 to 1922. The production of toy trains began with the introduction of the railways in the 1820s and continues to this day. c.1890. England. Museum of Cambridge CAMFK:418.54
Children's Games (Kinderspiele)
Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1560
© KHM-Museumverband
A child today is just as likely to play with a stick they've picked up off the ground as a specially made toy. This painting shows this was also the case in 1560. It is an extraordinary record of the types of games and playthings children used and made, depicting over 250 children taking part in 80 different activities. Many did not use specially made toys, instead the children have made up games using objects they found.
How many of the games do you recognise?
A Child's Place
The link between children and toys is obvious. But children in the past did more than just play. They weren't just a part of society - they contributed to it.
Children helped to make jugs for the family pottery, ten-year-olds left home to work on farms, a child learned how to hunt using a miniature bow. These activities have often been overlooked by archaeologists, but they left traces behind.
At first glance many of the objects in the sections below may not obviously relate to children. Look closely. Beyond the broken piece of pottery and small gold studs you'll find evidence for the place of children in society.
Archery: A Skill for Life
Archery was important in Bronze Age England. We can see this from surviving evidence such as stone arrowheads. Looking to the more recent past, from the Plains of America to the Mongolian Steppes, children were given small bows to master the skills of archery at a very young age. This was probably the case in the Bronze Age.
This bow (below) was originally interpreted by archaeologists as being used by an adult for a votive or religious function. Comparisons with more recent societies provide an alternative: this bow was used by a Bronze Age child.
Scroll down a little to see a painted wooden bow and three arrows collected by Mary Alicia Owen, who noted how Meskwaki children used them: "All the little boys and many of the little girls are skilled archers. They use the sharp arrows to kill rabbits and squirrels, the blunt ones to break the necks of birds and field mice."
Miniature bow shaped from red deer antler. Found in a pit at a Bronze Age settlement, archaeologists don't fully understand why it was deposited there. Bronze Age, 1700 - 1600 BCE. Isleham, Cambridgshire. MAA, 1997.11
Miniature bow shaped from red deer antler. Found in a pit at a Bronze Age settlement, archaeologists don't fully understand why it was deposited there. Bronze Age, 1700 - 1600 BCE. Isleham, Cambridgshire. MAA, 1997.11
Barbed and tanged flint arrowheads are found across western and Central Europe. They demonstrate how important bows and arrows were for hunting and warfare. Archery was a vital skill for children to learn. Early Bronze Age, 2500 - 1500 BCE. Burnt Fen, Littleport, Cambridgeshire. MAA
Barbed and tanged flint arrowheads are found across western and Central Europe. They demonstrate how important bows and arrows were for hunting and warfare. Archery was a vital skill for children to learn. Early Bronze Age, 2500 - 1500 BCE. Burnt Fen, Littleport, Cambridgeshire. MAA
Wooden child's bow. Late 19th century. Collected from the Meskwaki Nation near Tama, Iowa, USA. MAA, D.1976.239 A
Wooden child's bow. Late 19th century. Collected from the Meskwaki Nation near Tama, Iowa, USA. MAA, D.1976.239 A
Arrows with metal arrowheads and feathers. Late 19th century. Collected from the Meskwaki Nation near Tama, Iowa, USA. MAA, D 1976.239 A, D, J, and L
Arrows with metal arrowheads and feathers. Late 19th century. Collected from the Meskwaki Nation near Tama, Iowa, USA. MAA, D 1976.239 A, D, J, and L
Photograph of a young boy with a toucan holding a small bow and arrows used to hunt small birds. Photograph by Brian Moser or Donald Taylor. 1960-1961. Sierra de Perija, Colombia. MAA, T.120394
Photograph of a young boy with a toucan holding a small bow and arrows used to hunt small birds. Photograph by Brian Moser or Donald Taylor. 1960-1961. Sierra de Perija, Colombia. MAA, T.120394
Here be dragons
The image below of a knight and a beast was carved into the base of a column in the village church at Marsham, Norfolk. We think it shows St George fighting the dragon.
The dragon has no feet. Instead the artist has drawn what looks like the fringe or skirt of a medieval costume. Religious plays were popular in the medieval period. Did a play of George and the Dragon excite the imagination of a child, inspiring them to scratch the figures into the base of a column?
Marsham, Norfolk. Medieval (1066 - 1550 CE). © Norfolk Medieval Graffiti Survey
Marsham, Norfolk. Medieval (1066 - 1550 CE). © Norfolk Medieval Graffiti Survey
Do you see the children playing on hobby horses in this medieval manuscript (dating to 1490 - 1510)?
A Child's Eye View
Early Bronze Age, 1900 - 1700 BCE
Bush Barrow, Normanton Down, Wiltshire
Wiltshire Museum, Devizes, DZSWS:STHEAD.157a
At first glance, it is hard to imagine these small gold studs had anything to do with children. They were, after all, found near Stonehenge in the richly furnished grave of a Bronze Age adult.
A dagger handle from the burial was covered with thousands of these gold studs, each as fine as a human hair. In a world without magnifying glasses, excellent eyesight was needed to make and fix them to the handle. Recent research suggests that, because of their superb vision, children as young as 10 may have performed this task. This work came at a price - lasting damage to their sight.
Around 140,000 gold studs were used to decorate the dagger handle. The studs are so small, archaeologists had to use magnifying glasses to locate them in the soil.
Reconstruction of how the base of the dagger handle may have looked. Taken from an original watercolour in The History of Ancient Wiltshire (1812).
Reconstruction of how the base of the dagger handle may have looked. Taken from an original watercolour in The History of Ancient Wiltshire (1812).
Learning From Your Mistakes
Take a close look at this seemingly random assortment of pots from Eastern England. Many were once dismissed as poorly made. This may be true, but not because they were made in a hurry. They were probably made by learners.
Becoming a potter takes many years and in the past children would have started to learn as young as five. They first learned to create small, simple pots and then progressed to larger vessels and more complicated techniques.
To identify pots made by learners, you can look for tell-tale mistakes and compare them to ideal forms made by skilled potters.
Pinch pot technique
Pinch pot technique
Coiling technique
Coiling technique
